What Is a Masters Degree

A masters degree is a type of graduate degree earned after completion of an undergraduate degree like a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science. Typically the masters degree requires about 30 credits of coursework and takes 2 years of full-time study beyond the bachelors degree to complete. The masters degree sometimes entails completing comprehensive exams and  a thesis in addition to the course work and can be awarded in all fields — usually presented as a Master of Arts (MA) or a Master of Science (MS), although some fields have discipline-specific degrees such as social work (Master of Social Work) and art (Master of Fine Arts). Application Process Masters programs are available at most college institutions that offer bachelors degree programs, but choosing the right school and program is important to getting the most of your post-undergraduate education, so it may not serve you well to continue from your BA directly into an MA program at the same school.   Much like undergraduate applications, masters applications require a few basic essential documents in order to apply — namely, youll need your undergraduate transcript, letters of recommendation, cover letter and application essay, and, of course, an application fee.   Typically, masters applications run concurrently with undergraduate applications, so like undergrad, you should begin to apply for a masters program in the first semester of your Senior (4th) year of the program and continue shopping around until you hear back in early January to late March on whether or not you were accepted. Difference between Masters and Bachelors Degree Programs Unlike the undergraduate programs, masters programs often allow students to focus in on their field of study. Long gone are the days of taking general core curriculum courses like mathematics, science, and literature. So for example, a student pursuing a masters degree in writing wouldnt be taking a biology course as part of their 30 required course hours — instead, the student would take electives in essay writing or a particular form like  a memoir or novella. Another core difference is that the amount of classes offered varies greatly between the undergraduate and graduate programs. Whereas undergraduate schools offer most general interest classes like English Literature and Chemistry, masters schools only offer courses particularly suited to the degree itself. masters programs, therefore, allow for a more specific set of classes offered like Introduction to English Literature from 1500 to 1800 as opposed to a general catch-all class like English Literature offered in undergrad. Should You Apply? Are you feeling burnt out from your undergraduate courseload? Feeling strapped for cash or weighed down by the crushing debt of continued education? Finding yourself lacking in passion for the field of study you chose to pursue? If you answered yes to any of these questions, chances are a masters program isnt right for you — right now.   Still, if you find yourself stuck in a career rut because youre overqualified for some positions but underqualified and undereducated for higher positions, you may want to pursue an advanced degree in your field to provide some needed clout to your resume and job applications.   Ultimately, its most important to determine if youre ready to commit to another 2 years of being a full-time student because if youre not motivated to graduate, no one at grad school is going to light the fire under you to get you moving and active — its an entirely self-motivated degree. For that reason, its pivotal that you and you alone are ready and willing to enter a masters program.

Top Guide of Essay-writer-usa.

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Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Third Grade Essay Samples

<h1> Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Third Grade Essay Samples </h1> <h2> Want to Know More About Third Grade Essay Samples? </h2> <p>There's, obviously, a cutoff on the scope of pages even our best essayists can deliver with a squeezing cutoff time, however as a rule, we can fulfill all the customers looking for critical help. You may likewise turn into an assortment of limits on our site which will assist you with saving some more cash for future requests or anything you need to spend them on. You could likewise connect with your author to flexibly some extra proposals or solicitation data in regards to the request's advancement. To ensure that you will find a total response to each address, we have a help group that is constantly on the web. </p> <p>Third grade is oftentimes the year when understudies first begin to explore different avenues regarding organized composition, including the explanatory paper. 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Examples of Topics Sentences in Analytical Essays

<h1>Examples of Topics Sentences in Analytical Essays</h1><p>Examples of points sentences in diagnostic papers spread a wide scope of subjects. They incorporate definitions, coherent issues, even examinations of logical and authentic realities. What's more, similarly as with all paper points, the models in these sentences are simple, regardless of whether you have taken them to class and never went out! It's acceptable to realize that they can help furnish understudies with a decent establishment for analysis.</p><p></p><p>One of the things that can make a portion of the instances of points sentences in investigative articles troublesome is the point at which the author is attempting to get across something about a specific subject in a sensible way. Then again, there are heaps of approaches to do this recorded as a hard copy. The most ideal way, however, is to initially consider how the subject is applicable to the essayist's own experience or experience. An author will be better ready to utilize the instances of subjects sentences in diagnostic expositions if the author utilizes language that resounds with their own encounters and interests.</p><p></p><p>Another case of themes sentences in expository papers concerns legitimate examinations between various arrangements of realities. This may appear to be somewhat specialized and past the extent of the models gave, however it's critical for understanding that even the most profoundly qualified scholars can battle with this theme. For instance, look at a circumstance where it is important to confirm a negative truth, for example, gossip or defamation, with another circumstance where a positive case is more defensible.</p><p></p><p>The second of the instances of themes sentences in logical expositions manages whether verifiable realities are more grounded or more vulnerable than logical realities. The instances of points sen tences in logical expositions frequently center around how individuals decide to recall certain recorded occasions. There are a lot of difficulties when an individual accepts that the individual in question can recall a specific occasion dependent on close to home understanding, however doesn't comprehend why others can't. The most ideal approach to ensure that you utilize both the truthful and the individual encounters in your composing is to investigate these methodologies and see what makes them work and what doesn't.</p><p></p><p>Science and history are only two instances of subjects that will give instances of points sentences in logical articles. Your exposition can be composed on any point, and there are a wide range of sorts of articles that can be customized to the particular needs of every understudy. In case you're an understudy who has a solid enthusiasm for a specific field, your journalists abilities can be a piece limited.</p><p>< ;/p><p>One of the best things about instances of subjects sentences in scientific articles is that you can without much of a stretch return and ensure that you utilize the models all through the exposition and not simply in the last not many sentences. Along these lines, you'll generally have a simple approach back and alter any focuses that should be fixed. You'll additionally find that you don't have to change the instances of subjects sentences in expository articles to suit the theme or style of your paper, since they are so easy to adjust to your own style.</p><p></p><p>The instances of points sentences in explanatory papers can differ broadly relying upon the kind of composing course that you've taken. A few authors pay attention to their exercises, investing wholeheartedly in the information that they create through their training. Different authors can take notes while the author's course covers a similar material and realize what works and w hat doesn't.</p><p></p><p>Regardless of the style and nature of your composing course, you should attempt to ensure that you make instances of points sentences in diagnostic expositions as a major aspect of your learning procedure. As you read papers, you will go over a wide range of circumstances that can assist you with placing thoughts without hesitation. Understanding the various instances of subjects sentences in explanatory expositions will assist you with improving as a writer.</p>

The Changes Of The World s Civilizations - 1112 Words

Several countries and cultures throughout history rise while others fall. Some countries invade while others are invaded. Numerous factors come into play when reviewing the history and the changes of the world’s civilizations. A prime example of a territory constantly invaded by empires until finally becoming its own country is Syria. Though Syria has faced many trials throughout its past, it faces several in the present. Syrian culture, economics, politics, and military advances have been contributions to its military conflicts and Civil War. For centuries Syria has been fought over by empires, primarily for its geographical location. Syria is located on the borders of Turkey, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and the Mediterranean and is slightly larger than the state of North Dakota (Countries Compared by Geography Area Comparative. International Statistics at NationMaster.com, n.d.). Within the 71,000 square miles of its desert terrain, Syria is home to a population of 16,673,282 people (Stanford, 2016). Most of the population, especially the wealthy, resides near the Mediterranean Sea in the country’s capital, Damascus. According to Countries and their Culture, â€Å"The rapid spread of that city into nearby farmland has resulted in traffic congestion, overtaxed water supplies, pollution, and housing shortages. Many older buildings have been taken down to make room for roads and newer structures. The outskirts of the city have become overrun with quicklyShow MoreRelatedThe Changes Of The World s Civilizations1101 Words   |  5 Pages Several countries and cultures throughout history rise while others fall. Some countries invade while others are invaded. Numerous factors come into play when reviewing the history and the changes of the world’s civilizations. A prime example of a territory constantly invaded by empires until finally becoming its own country is Syria. Though Syria has faced many trials throughout its past, it faces several in the present. Syrian culture, economics, politics, and military advances haveRead MoreThe World Of World History1284 Words   |  6 Pages Summer Work Preface: I. World history explores human pasts worldwide to help us understand the world around us. To help us understand that the world needs to continue to develop or we will fall behind. This text talks about how human migration and trade amongst other things has gotten us to where we are today. A.Generalization of World history B.Periodization C.Key events D.Conclusion II. The world history explores the past so humans around the world can understand the terrene aroundRead MoreThe Clash Of Civilisations By Samuel Huntington1110 Words   |  5 Pagesdue to the clash of people s cultural and religious identities. Written from a post cold war perspective in 1993, Huntington discusses how future wars will follow a similar pattern. He focuses especially on the impact of the ‘dominant civilization of the West against the world s contrasting civilizations. Huntington s primary focus of the West as a dominating force against the rest is one critique of his argument. In addition, Huntington s definition of a civilization is also very open-ended andRead MoreAnalysis of William Goldings Lord of the Flies Essay700 Words   |  3 PagesAnalysis of William Goldings Lord of the Flies Civilization is the progress toward a society of privacy. The savages whole existence is public, ruled by the laws of his tribe. Civilization is the process of setting man free from men. (Ayn Rand) This quote explains this story, Lord of the Flies, in many ways. This book is about a plane full of boys escaping from the war happening in there society but unfortunately got shot and crashed down on an island. This plane contains boys coming backRead MoreThe Day After 911: Changes of the United States963 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"The Day after 911: Changes of the United States† The Middle East is one of the birthplaces of human kind’s civilization. Since the Ancient Egypt, Sumer, the Arab Empire, Turkey Empire, or even to present day, the Middle East has always been a valuable strategic point for not only because of its geographic location but also it full of petroleum and nature gas. According the OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) that 66% of the global oil reserves are in the Middle East andRead MoreAnalysis Of Basil Davidson s The Black Slave Trade1248 Words   |  5 PagesOver generations, Africa has been stripped from its truth and robbed from its historic contributions. Although the people of Africa greatly contributed to the world with their countless genius innovations, their recognition was nearly nonexistent. The endured hardships that were rooted by the Europeans during and after the Trans-Atlantic slave trade has led many to believe that the continent of Africa was inhabited by degenerates. This seemed to have become the single story of Africa. Basil DavidsonRead MoreEssay on Attributes That Have Influence566 Words   |  3 PagesInfluenced Western Civilization There have been major influences from ancient civilizations that have helped the development of our Western Civilization today. Two major civilizations that have maybe contributed the most to our civilization are ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Some of their contributions to our world today include farming, sailing and navigation, and the use of their calendar. First, and possibly the most important attribute that have come from the ancient civilizations is the art ofRead MoreLord of the Flies: 24 Quotes Using Literary Devices and Significance1649 Words   |  7 Pagesdescending and cutting into living flesh; because of the unbearable blood. (pg 31) Characterization: The others know that Jack couldn’t kill the sow because he has never killed another living creature. This quote shows how the boy(s) still have a trace of civilization in them. Jack could not have killed the sow because he is still a child and he has never killed before. â€Å"On his right were most of the choir; on his left the larger boys who had not known each other before... Before him small childrenRead MoreThe Decline Of The Mayan Civilization1196 Words   |  5 PagesThe rise of civilizations significantly increased as the world made its shift from the Paleolithic Era to the Neolithic Era and onward. The Mayan civilization arose as a part of Mesoamerica during the sixteenth century. Occupying the regions of Central America and Mexico, the Mayans had a strong impact on the world with militaristic and influence from the invention of advancements. The earliest record of the Mayan existence dates back to circa 400 B.C. The Mayan Civilization extended over a timeRead MoreThe Threat Of Global Economy1078 Words   |  5 PagesOur twenty-first century civilization is encountering an outgrowing capacity, which is moving us onto an economic path that is not environmentally sustainable. Today, we face many environmental problems that put us at risk i n achieving long-term sustainability, but we all have the decision to take action and move onto a path that sustains economic progress or watch our modern economy decline and collapse. We cannot say that we do not have the resources to move the world onto a path that can sustain

Economic Growth and Development free essay sample

ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Introduction Economies grow and develop, they expand and advance, and they progress and prosper. There are phases when they decline too, and there are economies that experience continuous decay. If one considers long stretches of human history, one knows that economies (civilizations) disappeared altogether. We will not take into account such long stretches of time. We shall not consider too distant a past either. We will leave them to historians, may be, economic historians. Let us take a normal view. We shall then accept decline as an occasional, temporary phenomenon. We shall, therefore, use positive terms only. Of the positive terms, which have been used to describe changes as well as to prescribe changes, two have survived. They are growth and development. Because we shall primarily look at nations and countries as economies, and use terms such as ‘economic growth’ and ‘economic development’. We shall often try to distinguish ‘economic’ from ‘noneconomic’ though there are cases where it becomes difficult to do so. In order to accommodate decline in level, we use phrase ‘negative growth’ and to describe perverse tendencies, we may use words ‘de-development’ or ‘mal development’ though; we will not have occasions to use them. You may find that, sometimes in many scientific treatises and very often in colloquy, words ‘growth’ and ‘development’ are used in interchangeable fashion. But, normally a distinction is made between the two, particularly in economics literature. It is maintained along the following lines. You might have noticed that the word ‘growth’ is used to describe increase in stature or size. It is used to describe a uni-dimensional change, as in the case of stature of a child or a uniform expansion in all directions, as in the case of size of a balloon. Even when we refer to development of a child, we refer to various dimensions of its personality. When we do not refer to dimensional aspects we use the word ‘growth’. Even schools and institutes, colleges and universities, hotels and hospitals grow. But, we are often quick to point out certain features that are not captured by word ‘growth’. It is rare, if ever, that growth takes place without development or development takes place without growth. In most cases, they would accompany each other. There may be cases when one is dominant and the other is dormant. In such cases, people talk of growth without development or development without growth. It is, therefore, good to make an analytical distinction between the two. Economic Growth Comprehensive views of the economy, taking all activities together, and call its growth as economic growth. Let us look at it from the view point of production. The total quantum of goods and services produced in an economy in a given year is referred to as Gross Domestic Product. Let us measure it at factor cost and write it in its abbreviated form GDPFC. The GDPFC in 2000-01 was around Rs 17,00,000 crore. This is a flow of goods and services produced during the year 2000-01, measured in value terms. We may be interested in knowing whether the flow this year is larger than the flow last year. If so, we should know the measure of the flow last year. In order to see that we measure the ‘real’ change in flow, we should compute the magnitude of flows in both the years in the same prices. The prices may belong to 2000-01 or 1999-2000 or to 1993-94; the point is that the prices should relate to only one common year so that we measure only the change in flow of output, not a mix of change in output and change in prices. Such GDPs are said to be measured at constant prices. Suppose you look into a recent issue of the National Accounts Statistics published by the Central Statistical Organization and find that at 1993-94 prices, the GDPFC for 1999-2000 and 2000-01 are Rs. 10,00,000 crore and Rs. 10,60,000 crore respectively. The growth in flow called GDPFC in absolute terms is Rs. 60,000 crore. In relative terms it is 6 per cent and it is called growth rate. If we prepare a whole series for 10, 20 or 50 years then we often add words ‘per annum’ or ‘per year’ to growth rate. The growth rate is often expressed in terms of per cent per annum. This is a positive change; there could be a negative change also. Suppose, we look at a twenty-year period and use yearly figures for flow of output of goods, which is measured in terms of GDPFC at constant prices. The growth rates calculated on yearly basis would differ from year to year. Shall we use nineteen year-to-year figures of growth rate, some of which may be negative, to describe the change? Or, should we just compare the initial figure with the final figure? If we adopt the former, how to summarise the nineteen figures? If we adopt the latter, it is possible that one of these (initial or final) figures is just ‘abnormal’ as it does not fall in line. Would it not be a good idea to speak of general tendency and ignore abnormal fluctuations around the general tendency of increase? Economic growth should, therefore, be taken as a long-term tendency reflected by increase in flow of final goods and services produced by the economy. If there is a general tendency of growth but there are occurrences of decline, the rates of growth will be negative in certain years. Shall we then say that, while the potential of economy to produce is continuously increasing, the potential is sometimes not realised? There could be various reasons for occasional decline. In economies that depend to a large extent on external trade conditions in other countries may affect the realisation. Monsoon may widely fail in certain years and economy may get derailed for a while. Internal demand may for a variety of reasons fail to make full use of the potential. Some economists put too much emphasis on supply potential and ignore demand conditions. They define economic growth as long-term increase in production potential of the economy. Some economists feel that it is growth of per capita GDPFC, not GDPFC, that should be used to gauge the growth of an economy. But the point to be noted is that economic growth is a long-term phenomenon about the change in total economic activity of an economy. Economic Development Some economists hold a view that the economic development is not much different from economic growth. For them, both are processes of long-term increase in per capita income. Some other economists believe that evelopment is distinctly different process than growth and covers other dimensions of change besides growth. Still others hold that, development is nothing but the level of per capita income achieved in a particular year. Whole human history may be thought of as a succession of developments or changes, largely in positive direction. Looking from a distance, we find that production structure of the economy has cha nged: from hunting-gathering to settled agriculture, from agriculture to manufacturing, from manufacturing to automatic production, from production of goods to production of services. It does not mean services were not produced, say thousand years ago; it only means that its relative importance has changed and that this might have occurred with increase in all activities in a broad sense. However, economics takes most of its lues from the economic history of the West during the last two centuries or so. During this period, a variety of sweeping changes took place in Europe, which may broadly be categorized as technological and institutional. Early economists working in the field of development economics took notice of change in the composition of output and deployment of labour in activities. They called it structural change. Structural change meant relative increase in terms of proportion of non-agriculture/nonprimary output and concomitant changes in proportion of employment of labour in non-agricultural activities (and also in that of allocation of capital and land). However, this structural change has to take place along with increase in output of all (or majority of) goods, not with decrease. They defined economic development as economic growth with structural change in favour of nonagricultural activities. And structural change was understood in terms of composition of GDP and industrial distribution of labour. This was a reflection of changing demand for goods and services on the one hand and changing demand for labour by production technology in different sectors on the other. Most of the mainstream economists believed that all economies in the West traversed the same path and believed that other economies would also follow the same path. When they did not find it happening they pointed out that institutional changes are equally important. Institutional changes could mean emergence of new institutions in governance, as also in capital market and money market. Some pointed out necessity of attitudinal changes in people – a leap from traditional value system to modern value system. In order to accommodate this thought, economic development could be defined as economic growth plus, that is, something more than economic growth. There were attempts to emphasize technological dimension of development. It was pointed out that economic growth should be accompanied by rise in productivity. Then, we could define economic development as economic growth accompanied by rise in productivity. Development is, however, just not concerned with description of economic history. It is to be pursued as a deliberate mechanism of deliverance of the masses from poverty and idleness in a relatively short period of time. Developments in the fifties and sixties did not perceptibly change the scene in these crucial areas. Many economists felt disillusioned and started showing their anguish. One such Western economist who had been dealing with problems of development asserted in a World Conference in Delhi: â€Å"The questions to ask about a country’s development are: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all the three, it would be strange to call the result ‘development’ even if per capita income doubled. Indeed, here is a reference to conscious attempts made to develop an economy by adopting a strategy. If the strategy brings in growth in capacity to produce more and in actual output, transformation in structure of economy in terms of composition of output of goods and services or even in deployment of labour force, emergence of institutions in terms of variet y of banks, and technology making use of machines and power instead of men and cattle, but makes no significant dent on basic problems of underdeveloped countries, what use are the efforts or the strategy? This implies that development has to be related to welfare of people. It was suggested much earlier that welfare of people depends on the size of the cake as well as its distribution. One is entitled to one’s wages when one is employed. One should get adequate wages, if employed or should get remunerative prices for what one produces, if self-employed. Mass poverty was one particular problem we attributed to the colonial rule and wanted to secure self-governance in order to eradicate it. If that scourge still persists on a large scale, we have a cause to worry about. In short, the suggestion is that the income should get redistributed in favour of relatively worse-off. Keeping this in view, some economists prefer to define economic development as economic growth with redistribution of resources in favour of the relatively worse off. In this concept, it is believed that reduction in inequality will reduce poverty and will lead to reduction in unemployment too.

Philippine Lit free essay sample

Literature is a diverse and rich group of works that has evolved side-by-side with the country’s history. Literature had started with fables and legends made by the ancient Filipinos long before the arrival of Spanish influence. The main themes of Philippine literature focus on the country’s pre-colonial cultural traditions and the socio-political histories of its colonial and contemporary traditions. It is not a secret that many Filipinos are unfamiliar with much of the countrys literary heritage, especially those that were written long before the Spaniards arrived in our country. This is due to the fact that the stories of ancient time were not written, but rather passed on from generation to generation through word of mouth. Only during 1521 did the early Filipinos became acquainted with literature due to the influence of the Spaniards on us. But the literature that the Filipinos became acquainted with are not Philippine-made, rather, they were works of Spanish authors. So successful were the efforts of colonists to blot out the memory of the countrys largely oral past that present-day Filipino writers, artists and journalists are trying to correct this inequity by recognizing the countrys wealth of ethnic traditions and disseminating them in schools through mass media. The rise of nationalistic pride in the 1960s and 1970s also helped bring about this change of attitude among a new breed of Filipinos concerned about the Filipino identity. Archaic Writing System Compared to other Southeast Asian countries, the Philippines has very few artifacts that show evidence of writing, like the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. It is known that the Filipinos transferred information by word of mouth so it is not a surprise to know that literacy only became widespread in 1571 when the Spaniards came to the Philippines. But the early script used by the Filipinos called Baybayin (often mistaken by most Filipinos as Alibata, although this was deprived from Arabic, which had no influence on the Philippine language whatsoever. ) became widespread in Luzon. The Spaniards recorded that people in Manila and other places wrote on bamboo or on specially prepared palm leaves, using knives and styli. They used the ancient Tagalog script which had 17 basic symbols, three of which were the vowels a/e, i, and o/u. Each basic consonantal symbol had the inherent a sound: ka, ga, nga, ta, da, na, pa, ba, ma, ya, la, wa, sa, and ha. A diacritical mark, called kudlit, modified the sound of the symbol into different vowel sounds. The kudlit could be a dot, a short line, or even an arrowhead. When placed above the symbol, it changed the inherent sound of the symbol from a/e to i; placed below, the sound became o/u. Thus a ba/be with a kudlit placed above became a bi; if the kudlit was placed below, the symbol became a bo/bu. Pre-Colonial Times Owing to the works of our own archaeologists, ethnologists and anthropologists, we are able to know more and better judge information about Philippine pre-colonial times set against a bulk of material about early Filipinos as recorded by Spanish, Chinese, Arabic and other chroniclers of the past. Pre-colonial inhabitants of our islands showcase the Philippines rich past through their folk sayings, folk songs, folk narratives and indigenous rituals and mimetic dances. The most seminal of these folk sayings is the riddle which is tigmo in Cebuano, bugtong in Tagalog, paktakon in Ilonggo and patototdon in Bicol. There are also proverbs or aphorisms that express norms or codes of behavior, community beliefs or values by offering nuggets of wisdom in short, rhyming verse. The folk song, is a form of folk lyric which expresses the hopes and aspirations, the peoples lifestyles as well as their loves. These are often repetitive and sonorous, didactic and naive as in the childrens songs or Ida-ida (Maguindanao), tulang pambata (Tagalog) or cansiones para abbing (Ibanag). A few examples are the lullabyes or Ili-ili (Ilonggo); love songs like the panawagon and balitao (Ilonggo); harana or serenade (Cebuano); the bayok (Maranao); the seven-syllable per line poem, ambahan of the Mangyans that are about human relationships, social entertainment and also serve as tools for teaching the young; work songs that depict the livelihood of the people often sung to go with the movement of workers such as the kalusan (Ivatan), soliranin (Tagalog rowing song), the mambayu, a Kalinga rice-pounding song, and the verbal jousts/games like the duplo popular during wakes. The folk narratives, such as epics and folk tales are varied, exotic and magical. They were created to explain the phenomena of the world long before science came to be known. They explain how the world was created, how certain animals possess certain characteristics, why some places have waterfalls, volcanoes, mountains, flora or fauna and, in the case of legends, the origins of things. Fables are about animals and these teach moral lessons. The epics come in various names: Guman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao); Hudhud (Ifugao); and Ulahingan (Manobo). These epics revolve around supernatural events or heroic deeds and they embody or validate the beliefs and customs and ideals of a community. They are performed during feasts and special occasions such as harvests, weddings or funerals by chanters. Examples of these epics are the Lam-ang (Ilocano); Hinilawod (Sulod); Kudaman (Palawan); Darangen (Maranao); Ulahingan (Livunganen-Arumanen Manobo); Mangovayt Buhong na Langit (The Maiden of the Buhong Sky from TuwaangManobo); Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon); and Tudbulol (Tboli). Colonial Literature (16th-18th Century) The arrival of the Spaniards in 1565 brought Spanish culture and language. The Spanish conquerors, governing from Mexico for the crown of Spain, established a strict class system that was based on race and soon imposed Roman Catholicism on the native population. While it is true that Spain subjugated the Philippines for more mundane reasons, this former European power contributed much in the shaping and recording of our literature. Religion and institutions that represented European civilization enriched the languages in the lowlands, introduced theater which we would come to know as komedya, the sinakulo, the sarswela, the playlets and the drama. The natives, called indio, generally were not taught Spanish, but the bilingual individuals, notably poet-translator Gaspar Aquino de Belen, produced devotional poetry written in the Roman script in the Tagalog language. Literature from this period may be classified as religious prose and poetry and secular prose and poetry. Religious lyrics written by ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish and Tagalog were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos the Spanish language. Another type of religious lyrics is the meditative verse like the dalit appended to novenas and catechisms. It has no fixed meter nor rhyme scheme although a number are written in octo-syllabic quatrains and have a solemn tone and spiritual subject matter. Secular works appeared alongside historical and economic changes, the emergence of an opulent class and the middle class who could avail of a European education. This Filipino elite could now read printed works that used to be the exclusive domain of the missionaries. The most notable of the secular lyrics followed the conventions of a romantic tradition: the languishing but loyal lover, the elusive, often heartless beloved, the rival. The leading poets were Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Sisiw) and Francisco Balagtas. Some secular poets who wrote in this same tradition were Leona Florentino, Jacinto Kawili, Isabelo de los Reyes and Rafael Gandioco. Another popular type of secular poetry is the metrical romance, the awit and korido in Tagalog. The awit is set in dodecasyllabic quatrains while the korido is in octosyllabic quatrains. An example of this is the Ibong Adarna (Adarna Bird). There are numerous metrical romances in Tagalog, Bicol, Ilonggo, Pampango, Ilocano and in Pangasinan. The awit as a popular poetic genre reached new heights in Balagtass Florante at Laura (ca. 1838-1861), the most famous of the countrys metrical romances. Classical Literature (XIX Century) Again, the winds of change began to blow in 19th century Philippines. Filipino intellectuals educated in Europe called ilustrados began to write about the downside of colonization. This, coupled with the simmering calls for reforms by the masses inspired a formidable force of writers like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Emilio Jacinto and Andres Bonifacio. This led to the formation of the Propaganda Movement where prose works such as the political essays and Rizals two political novels, Noli Me Tangere and the El filibusterismo helped usher in the Philippine revolution resulting in the downfall of the Spanish regime, and, at the same time planted the seeds of a national consciousness among Filipinos. But before Rizals political novels came, the novel Ninay (1885) by Pedro Paterno, which was largely cultural and is considered the first Filipino novel. Although Paternos Ninay gave impetus to other novelists like Jesus Balmori and Antonio M. Abad to continue writing in Spanish, their efforts did not flourish. Other Filipino writers published the essay and short fiction in Spanish in La Vanguardia, El Debate, Renacimiento Filipino, and Nueva Era. The more notable essayists and fictionists were Claro M. Recto, Teodoro M. Kalaw, Epifanio de los Reyes, Vicente Sotto, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Rafael Palma, Enrique Laygo (Caretas or Masks, 1925) and Balmori who mastered the prosa romantica or romantic prose. Modern Literature (XX Century) A new set of colonizers brought about new changes in Philippine literature. New literary forms such as free verse [in poetry], the modern short story and the critical essay were introduced. American influence was deeply entrenched with the firm establishment of English as the medium of instruction in all schools and with literary modernism that highlighted the writers individuality and cultivated consciousness of craft, sometimes at the expense of social consciousness. Ironically, the greatest portion of Spanish literature by native Filipinos was written during the American Commonwealth period, because the Spanish language was still predominant among the Filipino intellectuals. Among the newspapers published in Spanish were El Renacimiento, La Democracia, La Vanguardia, El Pueblo de Iloilo, El Tiempo and others. Three magazines, The Independent, Philippine Free Press and Philippine Review were published in English and Spanish. The poet, and later, National Artist for Literature, Jose Garcia Villa used free verse and espoused the dictum, Art for arts sake to the chagrin of other writers more concerned with the utilitarian aspect of literature. Another maverick in poetry who used free verse and talked about illicit love in her poetry was Angela Manalang-Gloria, a woman poet described as ahead of her time. The Balagtas tradition persisted until the poet Alejandro G. Abadilla advocated modernism in poetry. Abadilla later influenced young poets to write modern verse in the 1960s such as Virgilio S. Almario, Pedro I. Ricarte and Rolando S. Tinio. While the early Filipino poets grappled with the verities of the new language, Filipinos seemed to have taken easily to the modern short story like those published in the Philippines Free Press, the College Folio and Philippines Herald. Paz Marquez Benitezs Dead Stars, published in 1925, was the first successful short story in English written by a Filipino. Later on, Arturo B. Rotor and Manuel E. Arguilla showed exceptional skill in the short story. Alongside this development, writers in the vernaculars continued to write in the provinces. Others like Lope K. Santos, Valeriano Hernandez Pena and Patricio Mariano were writing minimal narratives similar to the early Tagalog short fiction called dali or pasingaw (sketch). Chapter II: Related Literature and Studies Two Major Parts of Related Literature and studies.